Burundi
The Republic of Burundi, in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa, is a landlocked country. It is bordered by Tanzania to the east and south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Rwanda to the north. Its population is estimated at 11,465,726 and its area is 28,000 sq. km. Bujumbura is the country’s capital. Lake Tanganyika is on Burundi’s southwestern border.
Since Burundi’s formation 500 years ago, the Twa, Tutsi, and Hutu people have occupied the country. For two hundred years, the country was ruled as a kingdom by the Tutsi. Germany and Belgium occupied the area in the early 20th century. Burundi and Rwanda became Ruanda-Urundi, a European colony.
Social differences between the Hutu and the Tutsi led to regional unrest. This in turn led to a civil war in Burundi in the middle of the 20th century. Burundi is presently a presidential representative democracy. Roman Catholics are 62 percent of the population. 8 percent to 10 percent are Muslim, and the rest follow indigenous religions or other Christian denominations.
Burundi has the lowest per capita GDP in the world and is considered one of the ten poorest world nations. Civil wars, corruption, HIV/AIDS, and poor education have taken their toll on GDP. Burundi’s population is dense and there is high emigration. Natural resources include cobalt and copper. Coffee and sugar are major exports.
History
Kingdom of Burundi
The first evidence of the Burundian state dates back to the late 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours. The Kingdom of Burundi, or Urundi, in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him; succession struggles were common. The king, known as the mwami (translated as ruler) headed a princely aristocracy (ganwa) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers (mainly Hutu) and herders (mainly Tutsi). The Kingdom of Burundi was characterized by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange.
In the mid-18th century, the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire—a patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure. By this time, the royal court was made up of the Tutsi-Banyaruguru, they had higher social status than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi-Hima. In the lower levels of this society were generally Hutu people, and at the very bottom of the pyramid were the Twa. The system had some fluidity however, some Hutu people belonged to the nobility and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state.
The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone. Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi, some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa. On the other hand, there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu. Thus, the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a socio-cultural concept, instead of a purely ethnic one. There were also many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people. In general, regional ties and tribal power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi’s politics than ethnicity.
Burundi ceased to be a monarchy when king Ntare V Ndizeye was deposed by his Prime Minister and Chief of Staff, Capt. Michel Micombero, who abolished the monarchy and declared a republic following the November 1966 coup d’état.
Colonisation
After being defeated in World War I, Germany gave control of its eastern African colonies to Belgium. On October 20, 1924, the area, consisting of modern day Burundi and Rwanda, became a practical part of the Belgium Empire as Ruanda-Urundi under a Belgian League of Nations mandate. The Belgians allowed the area’s kingship dynasty to continue.
After World War II, the colony became a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian control. A series of policies during the 1940s caused divisions. On October 4, 1943, legislative powers were split between kingdoms and lower chiefdoms. The kingdoms were in charge of the land. Some powers also rested with native authorities, which became an influence on Burundi’s independence.
Independence and Civil War
On January 20, 1959, Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Burundi’s ruler, requested the Belgians separate Burundi and Rwanda. Political parties were formed six months later to bring attention to the proposal. The Unity for National Progress (UPRONA) was the first of these.
Instability and ethnic persecution in Rwanda influenced Burundi’s drive for independence. In November of 1959, the Hutu in Rwanda attacked the Tutsi, killing them by the thousands. The Tutsi escaped to Burundi and Uganda. Once in Burundi, those Tutsi began fighting the local Hutu in retaliation. In 1960, the Hutu took power in Rwanda after they won Belgian-run elections.
The UPRONA became the most prominent organization in Ruanda-Urundi. A multi-ethnic party, it was led by Prince Louis Rwagasore. The Christian Democratic Party (PDC) also was at the forefront. Prince Rwagasore was assassinated in 1961 after UPRONA’s election victory. Belgian administrators allegedly assisted in the killing.
Independence was claimed on July 1, 1962. The country legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi, with Mwami Mwambuta IV being named king. Burundi joined the United Nations on September 18, 1962, just a month after declaring independence.
A constitutional monarchy was established after independence with both Hutu and Tutsi representation in parliament. King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister which led to the Hutus, holding a parliament majority, to feel cheated. The police, dominated by Hutus, attempted a coup which the army, led by a Tutsi put down. Hutus then began attacking Tutsi in the countryside. The government suppressed the killing fearing Hutus wanting to follow the “Model Rwanda.” Burundi’s police and military were brought under Tutsi control.
In 1966, Mwambuta’a son, Prince Ntare V deposed him and claimed the throne. Tutsi Prime Minister Captain Michel Micombero deposed him that year and abolished the monarchy. While he declared the nation a republic, effectively it was a military regime.
In 1972, the Hutu Burundi Workers’ Party (UBU) carried out attacks on Tutsis to attempt to exterminate the entire group. The military responded by targeting Hutus. Estimates have varied, but the total deaths in the attacks on both sides is said to be 100,000 at least. A similar number sought asylum in Rwanda and Tanzania. In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, a Tutsi, led a bloodless coup. He promoted reforms and a constitution was established in 1981. It kept Burundi a one party state. Bagaza was elected the state’s head in 1984. He suppressed religious freedoms and political opponents throughout his tenure.
In 1987, another Tutsi, Major Pierre Buyoya, over threw Bagaza and suspended the constitution. He also dissolved political parties and reestablished military rule under the Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN). The remnants of the UBU redistributed anti-Tutsi propaganda. This led to Tutsi killings in August of 1988 in northern communities. The government estimated deaths at 5,000, but this has been criticized as too low by organizations.
While the government did not respond harshly, international trust was lost when it declared amnesty for the massacre’s leaders. Some analysts believe this started the “culture of impunity” but others believe it began earlier.
After the incident, Hutu intellectuals wrote a letter to Buyoya requesting more Hutu representation in the government. The signors were then imprisoned. Buyoya did appoint a new government several weeks letter with equal Hutu and Tutsi representation. A Hutu, Adrien Sibomana was appointed Prime Minister. A commission was also started to address the national unity question. A new constitution was established in 1992 creating a multi-party system. A civil war started shortly after in Burundi’s core.
Democracy’s First Attempt
In June 1993, elections were held. Melchior Ndadye, leader of the Hutu Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), won the election and became the first Hutu head of state. Tutsi soldiers assassinated Ndadaye in October, 1993, triggering years of violence between the groups. 300,000 were estimated killed in the following years.
Parliament elected another Hutu, Cyprien Ntaryamira, as president in 1994. He, along with Rwanda’s president, was killed when their airplane was shot down. Refugees then started moving into Rwanda. The Hutu parliament speaker, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya, was appointed to replace the president. Ethnic violence began with Hutus being massacred in the capital. The Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from parliament and the government.
A Tutsi, Pierre Buyoya, took power in 1996 in a coup. After suspending the constitution, he was sworn in as president. Rebel attacks forced the government to relocate the population to refugee camps. South Africa moderated peace talks, which led to power sharing agreements. After four years of planning on August 28, 2000, Burundi’s transitional government began to take shape under the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The government was given a five year trial. A 2001 power sharing agreement and peace plan has been fairly successful. The largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy), and the Tutsi controlled government signed a cease fire in 2003.
In 2003, Domitien Ndayizeye, the FRODEBU…
